Correspondences between Contemporary Philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism: Realism (Jitsu, Realism) vs. Emptiness (Kuu), and Madhyamaka vs. Post-Structuralism

Correspondences between Contemporary Philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism: Realism (Jitsu, Realism) vs. Emptiness (Kuu), and Madhyamaka vs. Post-Structuralism

Introduction

Contemporary philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism share essentially the same conceptual framework. In short, their correspondences can be summarized as follows. This article elaborates on these parallels.

Contemporary Philosophy and Buddhism are Essentially the Same

To state the conclusion upfront, contemporary philosophy (modern thought) and Mahayana Buddhism are essentially identical.

To be more precise, structuralism in contemporary philosophy corresponds directly to the Buddhist concept of emptiness (Kuu). Furthermore, a part of post-structuralism in contemporary philosophy aligns with Madhyamaka (Middle Way theory) in Buddhism.

Strictly speaking, structuralism and emptiness theory (Kuu-ron) are nearly identical. Meanwhile, Madhyamaka is analogous to post-structuralism once structuralism and various other theories are removed.

Recently, a useful term has emerged to simplify this: meta-cognition. In short, Madhyamaka and the essence of post-structuralism minus structuralism and other theories can both be described as meta-cognition.

Meta-cognition means “cognition about cognition.” What is being cognized? Various ways of thinking, ideologies, theories, information-processing methods, ethics, moral guidelines, religions, and philosophies—in other words, all conceptual frameworks.

In computer terms, meta-cognition corresponds to an operating system (OS), while various ways of thinking and ideologies are applications. Historically, the “applications” were discovered before the “OS.”

In Buddhism, the Buddha first realized the doctrine of emptiness (dependent origination, “all five aggregates are empty”), and subsequently, Madhyamaka emerged inevitably.

In contemporary philosophy, structuralism emerged first, naturally leading to post-structuralism. Although applications precede the OS historically, humans naturally use software (applications) rather than consciously recognizing the OS.

Realism as the Centerpiece of Philosophy

Major global powers, religious states, and nations in the process or aftermath of modernization tend to be perceived as dualistic. However, closer inspection reveals they often operate on a division between monism and “otherness.”

Modernization tends to create a binary: Western-centrism vs. others. Religions have exclusivist monotheism vs. others. Politics, society, and economy have liberalism vs. others. Philosophy often revolves around realism vs. others.

However, the “others” category is frequently misconstrued as opposing realism, causing confusion. “Non-” differs from “anti-” as the latter implies exclusivity.

Philosophically, realism has been central since ancient times. During medieval theology, realism opposed nominalism. Rationalism opposed empiricism, German idealism opposed realism, existentialism opposed realism, phenomenology opposed realism, and structuralism opposed realism. Post-structuralism finally clarified and resolved these tensions.

Uniqueness of Buddhism: Western vs. Eastern Thought

While Western modern civilization unfolds as described above, Eastern thought—particularly Buddhism—is the inverse. Over 2500 years ago, the Buddha anticipated and formulated structuralism and post-structuralism.

In Western philosophy, the opposition between realism and non-realism dominated. Buddhism, however, integrates non-realism inclusively, without opposing realism.

Japan, a rare Mahayana Buddhist country, appears uniquely alien to Western observers due to this integrated viewpoint.

Why Realism Dominates: Substance (Thing) vs. Concept (Event)

Realism is intuitive, straightforward, and aligns with basic human cognitive development—sensory experience precedes abstract conceptualization.

Humans perceive the world through sensory experiences (substance) and abstract concepts (events). Realism emphasizes the sensory, material aspect, while non-realism emphasizes the conceptual, abstract aspect.

Emptiness (Kuu-ron) and Structuralism vs. Realism

Structuralism in contemporary philosophy directly corresponds to Buddhist emptiness theory, representing a mature non-realism. Western philosophy historically lacked a direct concept analogous to emptiness, leading to indirect expressions like nominalism, empiricism, and phenomenology.

Medieval Realism vs. Nominalism and Emptiness

Medieval theology debated realism (existence of universals) vs. nominalism (existence attributed through naming conventions). Lacking the term “emptiness,” nominalism expressed emptiness indirectly.

Rationalism, Empiricism, and Emptiness

Continental rationalism (innate reason) is realist. British empiricism (knowledge through experience) indirectly expresses emptiness through experience as the basis of conceptual construction.

Descartes’ Dualism and Emptiness

Descartes bases philosophy on the intuitive realism of the ego, supported ultimately by God’s existence. His analytical method can result either in constructing reality (realism) or viewing constructions as empty frameworks (structuralism).

German Idealism and Emptiness

German idealism resolves Kantian dualities by making all phenomena constructs of consciousness—essentially aligning with structuralism and emptiness theory.

Phenomenology (Husserl) and Emptiness

Husserl’s phenomenology brackets the question of existence (epoché), focusing on appearances (phenomena), effectively considering them as “constructive components of emptiness.”

Nietzsche and Emptiness

Nietzsche explicitly aligns with emptiness by describing the world as chaos, shaped dynamically by drives and will to power, corresponding closely to the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination.

Structuralism and Post-Structuralism in Various Fields

Structuralism dominated 20th-century thought, reinterpreting cultural anthropology (Lévi-Strauss), psychoanalysis (Lacan), Marxism (Althusser), and humanities (Foucault). Mathematics itself underwent structural reformulation (Bourbaki group).

Summarizing Emptiness and Structuralism

In complex modern systems (e.g., AI robots), the realist approach (substance-based) clashes culturally with emptiness (concept-based), especially evident in different cultural portrayals of AI and self-awareness.

Components of Emptiness

Non-realist theories differ due to the absence of an emptiness concept. Thus, emptiness theory is articulated indirectly through nominalism (symbols), empiricism (experience), idealism (ideas), phenomenology (appearances), and structuralism (structures).

Brief Overview of Post-Structuralism

Post-structuralism, meaning “after structuralism,” aligns closely with “meta-cognition,” or cognition about cognition. It transcends structuralism by reflecting upon various conceptual frameworks.

Buddhism calls this meta-cognition “Middle Way” (Madhyamaka). Post-structuralism might better be called “meta-structuralism,” focusing explicitly on meta-cognition.

Expressing Emptiness and Meta-Cognition

While emptiness still lacks a perfect Western analogue, various philosophers have attempted to express it: Derrida’s différance, Deleuze and Guattari’s rhizome, and Lacan’s symbolic-imaginary-real schema.

Conclusion

Contemporary philosophy aligns closely with Mahayana Buddhism’s Threefold Truth (Middle Way, Emptiness, Provisionality). Specifically:

• Contemporary philosophy ≈ Mahayana Buddhism
• Post-structuralism (core) ≈ Madhyamaka (Middle Way)
• Structuralism ≈ Emptiness theory (Kuu-ron)

Recognizing these parallels clarifies both contemporary philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism.